Emperor Septimius Severus personally commanded the last great Roman invasion of Scotland, advancing through Strathmore with an army estimated at 40,000-50,000 men. The Caledonians refused pitched battle, retreating into highland terrain, cutting off stragglers, and ambushing supply columns. Cassius Dio records Roman losses of around 50,000 from all causes — likely exaggerated but indicating severe attrition. Severus advanced at least to the Moray Firth.
Dio records c.50,000 Roman losses from all causes (exaggerated); Caledonian losses unknown
Largest Roman force ever deployed in Scotland: estimated 40,000+ including vexillations from Rhine and Danube legions
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